Vitamin D Research

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Pregnancy and Lactation

One of the great mysteries in human biology is the fact that most human breast milk is deficient in vitamin D. How could Nature overlook such an important nutrient in the "perfect food?" One possibility is that most human breast milk is deficient in vitamin D because most mothers are deficient in vitamin D.

Two very important papers detailing this were published by Dr. Bruce Hollis and his group from the Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, at the Medical University of South Carolina. Both papers support the concept of widespread deficiencies in pregnant women, especially black women, and both papers call for drastic upward revisions of maternal vitamin D supplementation.

One of the papers discovered that pregnant women need 4,000 IU a day of vitamin D to maintain both their own vitamin D levels and that of their infants—2,000 IU a day did not suffice. 4,000 IU a day is 10 times the amount recommended by the Food and Nutrition Board.

• Maternal vitamin D deficiency associated with neonatal hypocalcaemic convulsions.Nutr J. 2007 Sep 19;6(1):23.
• High prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in newborn infants of high‑risk mothers.Arch Dis Child. 2007 Sep;92(9):750–3.
• Maternal vitamin d deficiency increases the risk of preeclampsia.J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007 Sep;92(9):3517–22.
• Neonatal vitamin D status at birth at latitude 32 degrees 72': evidence of deficiency.J Perinatol. 2007 Sep;27(9):568–71.
• Severe Vitamin D‑deficiency and the Health of North China Children.Matern Child Health J. 2007 Jul 24.
• Vitamin D‑deficiency rickets among children in Canada.CMAJ. 2007 Jul 17;177(2):161–6.
• Correlation between vitamin D(3) deficiency and insulin resistance in pregnancy.Diabetes Metab Res Rev. 2007 Jul 2.
• Low vitamin d in pregnancy.Nurse Pract. 2007 Jun;32(6):19.
• Efficacy of daily and monthly high‑dose calciferol in vitamin D‑deficient nulliparous and lactating women.Am J Clin Nutr. 2007 Jun;85(6):1565–71.
• Sun exposure and prostate cancer risk: evidence for a protective effect of early‑life exposure.Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2007 Jun;16(6):1283–6.
• Efficacy of daily and monthly high‑dose calciferol in vitamin D‑deficient nulliparous and lactating women.Am J Clin Nutr. Vol. 85, No. 6, 1565–1571, June 2007.
• Vitamin D status in mothers and their newborns in Iran.BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2007 Feb 12;7:1.
• High Prevalence of Vitamin D Insufficiency in Black and White Pregnant Women Residing in the Northern United States and Their Neonates.J Nutr. 2007 Feb;137(2):447–452.
• Vitamin d deficiency in pregnancy: bringing the issues to light.J Nutr. 2007 Feb;137(2):305–6.
• Vitamin D deficiency in a healthy group of mothers and newborn infants.Clin Pediatr (Phila). 2007 Jan;46(1):42–4.
• High prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in newborn infants of high‑risk mothers.Archives of Disease in Childhood 2007;92:750–753.
• Relationship between pregnancy outcomes and maternal vitamin D and calcium intake: A cross‑sectional study.Gynecol Endocrinol. 2006 Oct;22(10):585–9.
• Postpartum vitamin D insufficiency and secondary hyperparathyroidism in healthy Danish women.Eur J Clin Nutr. 2006 Oct;60(10):1214–21. Epub 2006 May 24.
• Vitamin d status as related to race and feeding type in preterm infants.Breastfeed Med. 2006 Autumn;1(3):156–63.
• Effects of 25‑Hydroxyvitamin D3 and 1,25‑Dihydroxyvitamin D3 on Cytokine Production by Human Decidual Cells.Biol Reprod. 2006 Sep 6; [Epub ahead of print]
• Prevention and treatment of infant and childhood vitamin D deficiency in Australia and New Zealand: a consensus statement.Med J Aust. 2006 Sep 4;185(5):268–272. Review.
• Effects of dietary calcium intervention on adolescent mothers and newborns: a randomized controlled trial.Obstet Gynecol. 2006 Sep;108(3):565–71.
• High prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in pregnant non‑Western women in The Hague, Netherlands.Am J Clin Nutr. 2006 Aug;84(2):350–3; quiz 468–9.
• Vitamin D deficiency in breastfed infants in Iowa.Pediatrics. 2006 Aug;118(2):603–10.
• Vitamin D deficiency during pregnancy: an ongoing epidemicAm J Clin Nutr. Vol. 84, No. 2, 273, August 2006. Editorial.
• Association of low intake of milk and vitamin D during pregnancy with decreased birth weight.CMAJ. 2006 Apr 25;174(9):1273–7.
• Changes in calcium, 25OH vitamin D3 and other biochemical factors during pregnancy.J Endocrinol Invest. 2006 Apr;29(4):303–7.
• Hypocalcemia due to vitamin D deficiency in exclusively breastfed infants.Indian Pediatr. 2006 Mar;43(3):247–51.
• Severe vitamin‑D deficiency in more than half of the immigrant pregnant women of non‑western origin and their newborns.Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd. 2006 Mar 4;150(9):495–9. In Dutch.
• Breastfeeding and vitamin D status in Greece during the first 6 months of life.Eur J Pediatr. 2005 Dec;164(12):724–9. Epub 2005 Sep 6.
• High prevalence of vitamin D deficiency among pregnant women and their newborns in northern IndiaAm J Clin Nutr. Vol. 81, No. 5, 1060–1064, May 2005
• Seizures in foreign newborns due to maternal vitamin‑D deficiency.Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd. 2005 Jan 29;149(5):257–60. In Dutch.
• Issues in establishing vitamin D recommendations for infants and children.Am J Clin Nutr. 2004 Dec;80(6 Suppl):1759S–62S. Review.
• Vitamin D requirements during lactation: high‑dose maternal supplementation as therapy to prevent hypovitaminosis D for both the mother and the nursing infant.Am J Clin Nutr. 2004 Dec;80(6 Suppl):1752S–8S.
• Nutritional rickets among children in the United States: review of cases reported between 1986 and 2003.Am J Clin Nutr. 2004 Dec;80(6 Suppl):1697S–705S. Review.
• Postnatal evaluation of vitamin D and bone health in women who were vitamin D‑deficient in pregnancy, and in their infants.Med J Aust. 2004 Nov 1;181(9):486–8.
• Assessment of dietary vitamin D requirements during pregnancy and lactation.Am J Clin Nutr. 2004 May;79(5):717–26. Review.
• Vitamin D supplementation during the first year of life and risk of schizophrenia: a Finnish birth cohort study.Schizophr Res. 2004 Apr 1;67(2–3):237–45.
• Association of subclinical vitamin D deficiency with severe acute lower respiratory infection in Indian children under 5 y.Eur J Clin Nutr. 2004 Apr;58(4):563–7.
• Hypovitaminosis D and vitamin D deficiency in exclusively breast‑feeding infants and their mothers in summer: a justification for vitamin D supplementation of breast‑feeding infants.J Pediatr. 2003 Feb;142(2):169–73.
• Risk factors for vitamin D deficiency in breast‑fed newborns and their mothers.Nutrition. 2002 Jan;18(1):47–50.
• Vitamin D deficiency in mothers of infants with rickets.Med J Aust. 2001 Sep 3;175(5):253–5.
• Vitamin D deficiency in veiled or dark‑skinned pregnant women.Med J Aust. 2001 Sep 3;175(5):251–2.
• Vitamin d deficiency in breast‑fed toddlers.J Pediatr Orthop. 2001 Jul–Aug;21(4):508–11.
• Fat‑soluble vitamins in the maternal diet, influence of cod liver oil supplementation and impact of the maternal diet on human milk composition.Ann Nutr Metab. 2001;45(6):265–72.
• Bone mineral density of the spine and femur in healthy Saudi females: relation to vitamin D status, pregnancy, and lactation.Calcif Tissue Int. 1999 Jul;65(1):23–8.
• Biosocial factors affecting vitamin D status of women of childbearing age in the United Arab Emirates.J Biosoc Sci. 1998 Oct;30(4):431–7.
• Subclinical vitamin D deficiency in neonates: definition and response to vitamin D supplements.Am J Clin Nutr. 1997 Mar;65(3):771–8.
• Fortified milk and supplements of oral vitamin D. Comparison of the effect of two doses of vitamin D (500 and 1,000 UI/d) during the first trimester of life.Arch Pediatr. 1997 Feb;4(2):126–32. In French.
• Vitamin D deficiency in pregnant and breast‑feeding women and their infants.J Perinatol. 1997 Jan–Feb;17(1):10–4.
• Vitamin D deficiency and fetal growth.Early Hum Dev. 1996 Jul 5;45(1–2):27–33.
• Effect of three levels of vitamin D intake in preterm infants receiving high mineral‑containing milk.J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1995 Aug;21(2):182–9.
• Vitamin D deficiency in infants and young children born to migrant parents.J Paediatr Child Health. 1995 Jun;31(3):180–4.
• High prevalence of vitamin D deficiency among Ethiopian women immigrants to Israel: exacerbation during pregnancy and lactation.Isr J Med Sci. 1995 Apr;31(4):221–4.
• Vitamin D deficiency in a Manitoba community.Can J Public Health. 1993 Nov–Dec;84(6):394–6.
• The relationship between endogenous oestradiol and vitamin D3 metabolites in serum and follicular fluid during ovarian stimulation for in‑vitro fertilization and embryo transfer.Hum Reprod. 1992 Nov;7(10):1357–60.
• Vitamin D prophylaxis in childhood.Minerva Pediatr. 1992 Nov;44(11):533–49. Review.
• Effects of sunlight exposure on vitamin D status in pregnant women in France.J Gynecol Obstet Biol Reprod (Paris). 1991;20(5):685–90.
• Mineral and vitamin D adequacy in infants fed human milk or formula between 6 and 12 months of age.J Pediatr. 1990 Aug;117(2 Pt 2):S134–42. Review.
• Effects of ergocalciferol supplementation on the concentration of vitamin D and its metabolites in human milk.J Nutr. 1989 Nov;119(11):1639–46.
• Bone mineral content, serum vitamin D metabolite concentrations, and ultraviolet B light exposure in infants fed human milk with and without vitamin D2 supplements.J Pediatr. 1989 Feb;114(2):204–12.
• 25‑Hydroxyvitamin D and vitamin D in human milk: effects of supplementation and season.Am J Clin Nutr. 1988 Oct;48(4):1057–60.
• Calcium, vitamin D and parathyroid hormone relationships in pregnant Caucasian and Asian women and their neonates.Ann Clin Biochem. 1987 Jan;24 ( Pt 1):22–8.
• Vitamin D3 metabolites in amniotic fluid in relation with maternal and fetal sera in term pregnancies.J Perinat Med. 1987;15(3):282–90.
• Maternal compared with infant vitamin D supplementation.Arch Dis Child. 1986 Dec;61(12):1159–63.
• Calcidiol in human milk. The effect of prohormone on vitamin D status of breast fed unsupplemented infants.Endocrinol Exp. 1986 Aug;20(2–3):325–8.
• Relationship between the vitamin D content of maternal milk and the vitamin D status of nursing women and breast‑fed infants.J Endocrinol. 1986 Jul;110(1):43–50.
• Serum levels of vitamin D metabolites, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium and alkaline phosphatase in Finnish women throughout pregnancy and in cord serum at delivery.Hum Nutr Clin Nutr. 1986 Jul;40(4):287–93.
• Relationships among vitamin D, 25‑hydroxyvitamin D, and vitamin D‑binding protein concentrations in the plasma and milk of human subjects.J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1986 Jan;62(1):41–4.
• Serum concentrations of vitamin D metabolites in vitamin D supplemented pregnant women. A longitudinal study.Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 1986;65(1):63–7.
• Effect of race and diet on human‑milk vitamin D and 25‑hydroxyvitamin D.Am J Dis Child. 1985 Nov;139(11):1134–7.
• 25‑Hydroxyvitamin D levels during breast‑feeding with or without maternal or infantile supplementation of vitamin D.J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1985 Apr;4(2):220–6.
• Effect of 25‑hydroxyvitamin D3 and 1,25‑dihydroxyvitamin D3 maternal loads on maternal and fetal vitamin D metabolite levels in the rat.Reprod Nutr Dev. 1985;25(3):583–90.
• 25‑Hydroxyvitamin D and 1,25‑dihydroxyvitamin D of D2 and D3 origin in maternal and umbilical cord serum after vitamin D2 supplementation in human pregnancy.Am J Clin Nutr. 1984 Nov;40(5):1057–63.
• Serum concentrations of vitamin D metabolites in maternal and umbilical cord blood of Libyan and Norwegian women.Hum Nutr Clin Nutr. 1984 Jan;38(1):55–62.
• Serum concentrations of vitamin D metabolites in exclusively breast‑fed infants at 70 degrees north.Acta Paediatr Scand. 1984 Jan;73(1):29–32.
• Regulation of vitamin D metabolism in normal human pregnancy.J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1983 Feb;56(2):363–70.
• Maternal‑infant vitamin D relationships during breast‑feeding.J Pediatr. 1982 Oct;101(4):500–3.
• An improved method for routine determination of vitamin D and its hydroxylated metabolites in serum from children and adults.Clin Chim Acta. 1981 Aug 10;114(2–3):233–47.
• Vitamin D and pregnancy: the maternal‑fetal metabolism of vitamin D.Endocr Rev. 1981 Summer;2(3):264–74. Review.
• Hypoparathyroidism during pregnancy: treatment with calcitriol.J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1981 Apr;52(4):810–3.
• Normal intrauterine development of the fetus of a woman receiving extraordinarily high doses of 1,25‑dihydroxyvitamin D3.J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1980 Nov;51(5):1138–42.
• Vitamin D homeostasis in the perinatal period: 1,25‑dihydroxyvitamin D in maternal, cord, and neonatal blood.N Engl J Med. 1980 Feb 7;302(6):315–9.
• Changes in 25‑hydroxyvitamin D and 24,25‑dihydroxyvitamin D during pregnancy.Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1979 Sep 15;135(2):227–9.
• Perinatal vitamin D metabolism. IV. Maternal and cord serum 24,25‑dihydroxyvitamin D concentrations.J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1978 Nov;47(5):1073–7.
• Concentrations of 24,25‑dihydroxyvitamin D and 25‑hydroxyvitamin D in paired maternal‑cord sera.Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1978 Mar 15;130(6):704–7.
• Vitamin‑D in human milk.Lancet. 1977 Jan 22;1(8004):167–8.

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